16th Century Alcossebre

On the 8th of June 1583 Alcossebre was formally incorporated into Alcalá de Xivert. At that time the affairs of Alcalá were handled by the Order of Montesa, a Spanish military order who had replaced Templar control of Alcalá after the suppression of the Order of Knights Templar by the papacy in 1312.

Alcossebre (Alcocever in the Act of Incorporation) at this time appears to have been little more than a market garden for Alcalá, although its position 'a la vora de la mar' also required the civil authorities of Alcalá to maintain and pay for the upkeep of a Tower at 'Capicorp'.

By this act Alcossebre was brought under the civil and criminal jurisdiction of Alcalá de Xivert. The locality of Alcossebre was probably empty of inhabitants at the time of incorporation because of the ever-present fears of Barbary pirates along the coastline.

Two pieces of evidence support the notion of an Alcossebre without inhabitants: the first is the unequivocal statement in the Act of Incorporation that 'Alcosever lo qual de temps inmemorial está despoblat'; the second piece of evidence supporting an empty Alcossebre is the statement that the incorporation was to be regarded as without prejudice to the [pre-existing] rights of Alcalá - without any mention of a parallel body of rights for any inhabitants of Alcossebre.

Twenty-five years later the lives of every inhabitant of Alcalá de Xivert who could trace their lineage back to a muslim ancestor would change dramatically, when they were herded together to become part of a 300,000 strong diaspora, expelled from their homeland to the uncertainties of exile in North Africa.

A Compact History of Spanish Islam

Less than eighty years after the death of Mohammed in 632, Islam had become the dominant force in the Near East and North Africa and was poised to invade Spain.

In the years immediately following the Prophet's death, when Islam was governed by the first caliphate (the Rashidun) the muslims established an empire, bursting out of the Arabian peninsula and expanding east to the Iranian highlands and west along the north-African littoral.

The second caliphate, the Ummayad, arose from the bloody strife which culminated in the assassination of the fourth Rashidun caliph, Ali in 661.

Despite the ensuing civil war, the boundaries continued to move forward. By 710 the Ummayads had extended the frontiers of Islam as far as the Punjab, and the following year, 711, saw the start of the Ummayads' lightning conquest of the Iberian Peninsula.

Although in the Near East the Ummayads were comprehensively defeated by the Abbasids in 750, a prince of the Ummayads, 'Abd al-Rahman, survived the ensuing slaughter and established a revived Ummayad caliphate at Córdoba in 756.

The Ummayad Caliphate of al-Andalus persisted until the capture of Granada on January 2nd 1492, which ended seven and a half centuries of muslim occupation of Spain.

Muslim communities continued to subsist here and elsewhere in Spain for over a century after the capture of Granada. They remained the objects of suspicion even if they converted to Christianity. In Alcalá de Xivert the Moriscos, catholic converts from Islam, were banned from approaching the coast at Alcossebre, ostensibly to prevent them signaling to Barbary pirates who raided these waters during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.

Finally, in 1609 the Moriscos were expelled from the Kingdom of Valencia by Philip III. The illustration above depicts what appears to be an orderly dispersal from the port of Vinaròs of the Moriscos of Alcalá de Xivert and others. In truth their expulsion from this and other ports along the coast including Valencia, was the start of a disquieting journey into the unknown which ended with life-long exile in North Africa.

Vicente Carducho's drawing, La Expulsión de los Moriscos captures better the sense of desolation that hundreds of thousands of Moriscos must have felt on leaving Spain.

Almost exactly nine hundred years after Tariq ibn Ziyad landed on Gibraltar (Jabal al Tariq) the last remnants of Islam were bundled up and thrown out of Spain. In the near future I want to write something about the Moriscos of Alcalá.

From Battles to Conquest

Living in Alcossebre today, surrounded by the hills of Sierra de Irta, it's difficult to imagine the turbulent history of this part of Spain: from the medieval Reconquista, fought against the muslims, through to the Carlist wars of the 19th century, culminating in the fratricidal hatred of the Spanish Civil War (1936-39).

But this relatively insignificant section of Spain's Mediterranean coast has borne witness to war, siege, and mass movements of population from the medieval period right up to the twentieth century.

In the 1230s the muslim inhabitants of Alcalá de Xivert would have heard from their brothers in Peñiscola of the victorious advance of James I's armies along the eastern coast of the peninsula, south of the Ebro. Indeed James relied on word of his victories weakening the muslim will to fight. Often he could avoid a costly siege simply by pointing to his earlier successes. His Chronicle records a master-stroke of propaganda, in which he "insisted with the Saracens of Chivert and Cervera that since I had taken Peñiscola, they should surrender their castles. For as ... Peñiscola was the most renowned place in that district, and yet had surrendered, there would be no shame or disgrace in their surrendering also. Thereupon the Saracens did surrender the said castles"

But James I's success was underwritten by a hundred years of hard fighting which allowed the Aragonese crown to push forward the frontier against the muslim kingdoms south of the Ebro river.

Alfonso I of Aragon (1073 - 1134) was a remarkable precursor to James I: he was 'el Batallador' (the Battler) who prepared the ground for James I 'el Conquistador' (the Conqueror), Alfonso succeeded to the throne of Aragon in 1104, but at the time of his accession, Aragon was little more than the mountainous fringe of the Pyrenees. Five years later a judicious marriage brought Castile and Leon under Alfonso's control, allowing him to adopt the title 'Emperor of Spain', and assume the responsibility of prosecuting war against the muslims.

Alfonso relied upon fear rather than propaganda to aid in his campaigns against the muslim kingdoms: the Chronicle of Alfonso the Emperor notes that his campaign in the south against Seville was accompanied by the destruction of all the mosques they came upon, "and they killed all [the muslim] priests and doctors of the Law. The sacred books which they found in the mosques were burned"

One by one the various muslim kingdoms in Aragon fell under his control. By 1120 Zaragoza was taken, establishing the city as the capital of christian Aragon. Alfonso el Batallador died in September 1134, worn out by a combination of old age and fatigue, weakened by the wounds received in battle. The work of chipping away at the muslim kingdoms, begun by Alfonso would reach its successful culmination in the thirteenth century when James I established the christian Kingdom of Valencia and Alcalá de Xivert passed into the hands of the Templars.

Près des Remparts de Séville

Wifie and I returned from a lightning visit to Seville early this morning; we left on a 6.30 flight from Reus and returned on the 22.00 flight that same evening.

With only a single day for sight-seeing we expected no more than a blurred and indistinct sense of Seville, but we managed to bring back strong impressions of a graceful and beautiful Andalusian city. The muslim past surrounded us during the day, for example, the Giralda, converted from a Almohad minaret to the cathedral's bell tower or, on the banks of the Guadalquivir, the Torre del Oro, a watchtower built by the muslims as part of the chain of defence for the city.

It's easy to understand the sense of loss that must have overcome the muslims as the Reconquista bit deeper into the muslim territories of al-Andalus. The city of Seville itself was conquered by the armies of Fernando III in 1248, and the deep sense of loss to Islam is starkly conveyed by the poet, Abu-al-Baqa, writing in 1267. Clearly devastated by the sweeping changes that Spanish Islam had suffered in a single generation he wrote: 'Therefore ask Valencia what is the state of Murcia; and where is Játiva, and where is Jaén? Where is Córdoba, the home of the sciences ... Where is Seville and the pleasures it contains, as well as the sweet river overflowing and brimming full?'

Move two and a half centuries forward in time and Seville, with the monopoly of trade with the Indies, is the wealthiest and most important city in Spain, "not a city but a world" wrote Fernando de Herrera. In 1503 the catholic kings, Fernando and Isabel created the Casa de Contratación by royal decree, to administer and control the stream of gold from traffic with the Indies.

Seville is an enchanting city to visit. walk past the University which used to be the tobacco factory and is situated Près des remparts de Séville and try not to whistle the Séguedille from Carmen. Go in Spring or Autumn if you can, but if that's not possible go whenever you can; the city repays even a fleeting visit with sensory overload.

The Muslim and Norman Conquests

There was a contrast between two different conquests in the last posting: the muslim conquest of Spain in 711 and the norman conquest of England in 1066. By coincidence that same night Channel 4 televised the first of a two-part 'drama documentary' on the events of 1066.

It was surprisingly good.There was judicious use of Anglo-Saxon and Old Norse, but not too much to alienate the viewer. Quotes from Norse sagas and the Anglo Saxon Chronicle underscored the action and the battle scenes, particularly the Battle of Stamford Bridge, looked realistic: small-scale skirmishes rather than large set-piece battles.

I particularly liked the lyrically descriptive language - the viking invasion immediately before the normans crossed the Channel - was couched in the language of the sagas; the anglo-saxons described the vikings as 'sea-wolves' falling upon them from the 'whale road' (the North Sea).

While this caught the imagination, there were occasional false notes. the makers were clearly trying to tempt viewers brought up on the Lord of the Rings trilogy. Not only did they incorporate the term 'Middle Earth' into the title (1066, The Battle for Middle Earth) they also had the anglo-saxon defenders talking about 'the Shire' throughout. I even swear I heard the normans described as 'orc-like' at one point.

I used to prefer the 'talking head' approach to history, a historian who marshaled, summarized and presented his arguments (usually it was a man) to the non-professional viewer. In recent years however, the ascent to television of historians like David Starkie has made me reconsider that view. The modern style of tele-history allows the expert to occupy the centre of the screen, booming away at the listener, using force of personality to reinforce a point. Meanwhile the characters and events under discussion are elbowed vigorously back into the middle distance.

So, despite the occasional jarring reference to orcs, last night's drama documentary, with no historians in sight, worked well. It wasn't 'real' history; it was an imaginative reconstruction of events buttressed by quotations from chronicle and saga, but like all good television it made you care for the characters and believe in their predicament.

Understanding the Spanish

One possible starting point would be to consider the theme of frontiers. Growing up in the UK, it's difficult to grasp the notion of a 'frontier society', but Spain was the quintessential frontier society throughout much of its history, whether establishing a defensive line against Islam in the peninsula, or expanding its American empire after 1492.

The muslims arrived in Spain on July 19th 711, landing on a rocky promontory of the Pillars of Hercules, which they renamed Tariq's Mount, 'Jabal al Tariq' (Gibralter). Within a scant seven years the armies of Islam had conquered almost the entire Iberian peninsula.

Christian counter-offensives over the next two centuries managed to establish a frontier zone in the east which ran south of the Ebro river down into what is now the province of Castellon.

From the tenth to the thirteenth century Alcossebre was part of the no-man's land separating the christian north, defended by the kingdom of Aragon, from the muslim south with a local power base in Valencia.

The castle towering above Alcalá de Xivert, dates from the late tenth or early eleventh century, built by the muslims as part of a defensive chain of castles which stretched from Peñiscola to Polpis. Xivert Castle remained a bulwark against the ambitions of christian armies for almost 250 years.

If you visit the castle, look half-way up the east wall, where you can still see an inscription in arabic. It has faced the morning sun for over 750 years proclaiming Al-fatih Allah - 'Allah is the One who gives victory'. Underneath the castle lie the remains of the aljama or muslim township, which remained under continuous habitation until the expulsions of 1609.

This on-going confrontation with Islam over 900 years is one key to understanding the Spanish. In the past, even if a muslim converted to christianity that conversion was viewed with some suspicion; no hay peor enemigo que el vecino - 'there's no worse enemy than a neighbour'. The convert could never become 100% christian, un viejo cristiano; he remained a 'new convert' or 'morisco'. The suspicion that moorish conversion to christianity was a convenient veneer drove the terrible expulsions of 1609, when over 100,000 Valencian moriscos were driven from Spain.

By contrast, the conquest of England in 1066 was undertaken by a christian army. William had been given the pope's blessing to invade England, supplanting Harold of Wessex with a Norman king. Apart from scattered uprisings the english were neatly absorbed into an anglo-norman regnum. At ground level it probably mattered little if the lord was anglo-saxon or norman.

Another reason for norman success was the purely local scope of the Conquest. it was limited by geography and constrained by law. Once complete, the norman success was formalised by the publication of the Domesday Book in 1086 - a meticulous record of the wealth of 11th century England.

Conversely, the muslim conquest of Spain was only one part of a co-ordinated attack on christianity: the warrior nobility of Galicia and Asturias in the west and the Byzantine state in the east were the only hindrances to the muslim conquest of all of Europe. It must have been clear to christians of both east and west that 'après nous le déluge'.

The Spanish today, have been in almost continuous contact with Islam for nearly 1300 years. In the middle ages Reconquista gave an outlet to the aggressive, expansionist ideals of the Spanish kings. However, even as late as the 20th century, the idea of reconquista retained a powerful hold on sections of the Spanish population; a notion exploited by Franco to justify a 'crusade' against communists and separatists.

Were the Spanish ambivalent about Islam? Prior to the horrific events of 11-M (the March 11, 2004 bombings in Madrid) there seems to have been a romantic attachment to Islam. Even Franco was not immune from this lure: his personal mounted guard, the Guardia Mora, who accompanied him up to 1957, was formed from the muslim troops who fought on the nationalist side during the Civil War.

Moors and Christians

Every year, the Reconquista - the centuries-long crusade to supplant Islam as the dominant force in the peninsula - is remembered in hundreds of processions that wend their way along the medieval streets of towns and cities throughout Spain.

There's an immense amount of prestige about the whole thing. The beauty of the costumes (and some are gorgeous) and the number of participants are probably directly proportional to the size and wealth of the community sponsoring the event.

But even in a small town, like the neighbouring Alcalá de Xivert, which can't afford to field more than a dozen Moors and the same number of Christians you can't fail to be impressed by the wholehearted commitment of the participants.

And I may be wrong, but I think the local moslems view it with amused tolerance; apart from anything else, the 'moors' seem to be having more fun than the christians: cigars clenched in their teeth, scimitars flashing, kettle-drums banging and trumpets squealing behind them, they swagger along the processional route. They may be routed by the christians, led by St George tomorrow, but tonight's their night!

During the Middle Ages Alcossebre was little more than a market-garden for the citizens of Alcalá; it was located on a fertile plain by the sea. But although where I live was no more than an insignificant speck within the medieval Kingdom of Valencia there's enough history within a walk or a cycle ride to keep anyone who's interested in the subject happy for a lifetime.

So I've decided to try and write something about the history of this small part of the Communidad Valenciana. I'm going to start in 1234 partly because it's an easy date to remember ('one, two, three, four' what could be simpler?) but mainly because that's when this part of Spain suddenly stopped being a muslim-dominated territory and became part of James I's Kingdom of Valencia. It's a big theme, but I've started to work out a path through all the detail. Time will tell if I can do it.